The End of A Great War
End of World War I
While the first two years of the war were motivated by passionate patriotism and nationalism, the remaining years showed the toll of the war on the population. In April of 1916 Irish nationalists mounted the Great Eastern Rebellion, which unsuccessfully tried to overthrow British rule in Ireland. The Central Powers suffered from food shortages brought on by British blockades, and increasing numbers of people began food riots. The government harshly reacted to the riots, just as it faced the breakdown of military discipline brought on by revolting soldiers and sailors. At the German naval base in Kiel, for instance, sailors revolted in 1917 and later again in 1918. In 1917, after another failed offensive that resulted in massive casualties, French soldiers lost confidence in their leaders. The next time they were ordered to attack, the refused. The incident resulted in 23,385 court-martials and 432 death sentences of 50,000 involved soldiers.
In the spring of 1918, Germany used its last force against the western front, despite civilian disillusionment and the deteriorating economic conditions. The Allies broke through and pushed the Germans back. By then, Germany had exhausted its human and material means to wage war. Meanwhile, Bulgaria capitulated to the invading Allies on September 30th, the Ottomans concluded an armistice on October 30th, and Austria-Hungary surrendered on November 4th. On November 11, 1918, Germany finally accepted an armistice, and at last the days of the war were over.
In the spring of 1918, Germany used its last force against the western front, despite civilian disillusionment and the deteriorating economic conditions. The Allies broke through and pushed the Germans back. By then, Germany had exhausted its human and material means to wage war. Meanwhile, Bulgaria capitulated to the invading Allies on September 30th, the Ottomans concluded an armistice on October 30th, and Austria-Hungary surrendered on November 4th. On November 11, 1918, Germany finally accepted an armistice, and at last the days of the war were over.
Paris Peace Conference
In 1919 the Paris Peace Conference took place, an assembly of the victorious powers of the war in order to arrange a post-war settlement and set terms for the defeated nations. The people on both sides of the war had high hopes for the conference, but wound up disappointed by different and conflicting aims. Yet, the Soviet Union and the Central Powers were not allowed to participate and the Allies threatened to renew the war if any of their terms were denied.
A year prior to the conference U.S. President Woodrow Wilson prompted the proposal and acceptance of his Fourteen Points, which forwarded a just and enduring post-war peace settlement. The Fourteen Points included open covenants of peace, openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation on the seas in peace and war; the removal of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all nations; adequate guarantees for a reduction in national armaments; adjustments of colonial disputes to give equal weight to the interests of the controlling government and the colonial population; and a call for “a general association of nations.” The Allies opposed various points of the peace formula because they compromised the secret wartime agreements by which they had agreed to distribute among themselves territories and possessions of the defeated nations.
Each country sought different things in the conference. France desired the destruction or the permanent weakening of German power. The Allies wished for Germany to accept full responsibility and guilt for causing the war, and for a reduction in the military potential of the former Central Powers. The French and the British agreed in their demand that the Central Powers pay for the cost of the war and required the payment of reparation either in money or in kind. The Allies also called for the surrender of Ottoman Balkan and Arab provinces and the occupation of eastern and southern Anatolia by foreign powers.
A year prior to the conference U.S. President Woodrow Wilson prompted the proposal and acceptance of his Fourteen Points, which forwarded a just and enduring post-war peace settlement. The Fourteen Points included open covenants of peace, openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation on the seas in peace and war; the removal of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all nations; adequate guarantees for a reduction in national armaments; adjustments of colonial disputes to give equal weight to the interests of the controlling government and the colonial population; and a call for “a general association of nations.” The Allies opposed various points of the peace formula because they compromised the secret wartime agreements by which they had agreed to distribute among themselves territories and possessions of the defeated nations.
Each country sought different things in the conference. France desired the destruction or the permanent weakening of German power. The Allies wished for Germany to accept full responsibility and guilt for causing the war, and for a reduction in the military potential of the former Central Powers. The French and the British agreed in their demand that the Central Powers pay for the cost of the war and required the payment of reparation either in money or in kind. The Allies also called for the surrender of Ottoman Balkan and Arab provinces and the occupation of eastern and southern Anatolia by foreign powers.
Peace Treaties
The Paris Peace Conference resulted in multiple treaties as the various nations worked to compromise their gains. The Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919 and denied the Germans a navy and an air force and limited the size of the German army to 100,000 troops. It also prohibited Germany and Austria from entering into any sort of political union. Earlier, in 1918, Germany imposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on Russia, which was just as harsh as the Treaty of Versailles. Bulgaria accepted the Treaty of Neuilly in 1919, cede ding only small portions of territories due to the Allies’ fear that major territorial changes in the Balkans would destabilize the region. Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary’s imperial unity disintegrated under impact of the war. The peacemakers recognized the territorial breakup of the former empire in two separate treaties: The Treaty of St. Germain, between the Allies and the Republic of Austria, and the Treaty of Trianon between the Allies and the Kingdom of Hungary. Both nations suffered large territorial losses.
More complicated, however, were the arrangements between the Allies and their Ottoman adversaries. The Treaty of Sevres of 1920 dissolved the Ottoman empire, calling for the surrender of Ottoman Balkan and Arab provinces and the occupation of eastern and southern Anatolia by foreign powers. The treaty was accepted by the sultan, but not the Turkish nationalists who rallied around their wartime hero Mustafa Kemal. Kemal sought to defy the Allied terms and in doing so organized a national army that drove European and Balkan forces out and abolished the sultanate, replacing it with the Republic of Turkey. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the Allied powers officially recognized the Republic of Turkey. This led to the modernization of the Turkish nation. The government supported critical industries and businesses, and other forms of state intervention in the economy designed to ensure rapid economic development, resulted in long-term economic progress. The policy of secularism separated religion and state, replaced religion with secular institutions of education and justice, emancipated women, including their right to vote, the adoption of European-derived law, Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Roman alphabet, and Western clothing.
Meanwhile, in order to avoid future destructive conflicts, the League of Nations was formed at the Paris Peace Conference. Urged by President Woodrow Wilson, the League was made an integral part of the peace treaties, and every signatory had to accept the new world organization. However, two major flaws renedered it ineffective. First, it had no power to enforce its decisions, despite being designed to solve international desputes. Second, it relied on collective security as a tool for the preservation of global peace. The basic premise was that if there was aggression against one of the states, then therefore there was aggression against all of them because they were bound to help and defend each other. It faced troubles as many of the major powers did not belong to the League, or left it, and so it dissolved in the 1940s.
More complicated, however, were the arrangements between the Allies and their Ottoman adversaries. The Treaty of Sevres of 1920 dissolved the Ottoman empire, calling for the surrender of Ottoman Balkan and Arab provinces and the occupation of eastern and southern Anatolia by foreign powers. The treaty was accepted by the sultan, but not the Turkish nationalists who rallied around their wartime hero Mustafa Kemal. Kemal sought to defy the Allied terms and in doing so organized a national army that drove European and Balkan forces out and abolished the sultanate, replacing it with the Republic of Turkey. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the Allied powers officially recognized the Republic of Turkey. This led to the modernization of the Turkish nation. The government supported critical industries and businesses, and other forms of state intervention in the economy designed to ensure rapid economic development, resulted in long-term economic progress. The policy of secularism separated religion and state, replaced religion with secular institutions of education and justice, emancipated women, including their right to vote, the adoption of European-derived law, Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Roman alphabet, and Western clothing.
Meanwhile, in order to avoid future destructive conflicts, the League of Nations was formed at the Paris Peace Conference. Urged by President Woodrow Wilson, the League was made an integral part of the peace treaties, and every signatory had to accept the new world organization. However, two major flaws renedered it ineffective. First, it had no power to enforce its decisions, despite being designed to solve international desputes. Second, it relied on collective security as a tool for the preservation of global peace. The basic premise was that if there was aggression against one of the states, then therefore there was aggression against all of them because they were bound to help and defend each other. It faced troubles as many of the major powers did not belong to the League, or left it, and so it dissolved in the 1940s.
New Countries
EuropeAfter the Great War, the Allied won colonies were divided into three mandates, the Territory lost by Russia, the Territory lost by Germany, and the Territory lost by Bulgaria.
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Middle EastThe Paris Peace Conference brought on changes in the Middle East that have impacted the region until modern times. The Treaty of Serves between the Allied and the Ottoman empire succeeded in dissolving the empire in addition to calling for its surrender of Ottoman Balkan and Arab provinces and the occupation of eastern and southern Anatolia by foreign powers. While sultan Mohammad VI and the government accepted the terms, the Turkish nationalists who followed Mustafa Kemal did not. The nationalists and their leader, Kemal set out to defy Allied terms and in doing so organized a national army that drove out Greek, British, French, and Italian occupation forces and abolished the sultanate, replacing it with the Republic of Turkey. In 1923 the Allied powers officially recognized the Republic of Turkey in the Treaty of Lausannae.
Mustafa Kemal became the president of the republic, known as Ataturk. He instituted an ambitious program of modernization which emphasized economic development and secularism. Government support and different forms of state intervention resulted in long-term economic progress. Meanwhile, religion and state were separated as the government followed the policies of secularism. The policy resulted in the replacement of religious with secular institutions of education and justice, the emancipation of women, including their right to vote, the adoption of European-derived law, Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Roman alphabet, and Western clothing. The constitutional democracy in Turkey was ruled by Ataturk as a dictator until his death. |